[17]

CANADA. A COUNTRY DIVIDED.
The Times of London and Canada, 1908-1922.

Introduction

a) Bases for analysis

An analysis of the British Empire and Canada based on a publication such as The Times of London may lead the reader to believe that the important subject is the English perception of Canada. That is the case but this study is more complex. Starting in 1910, The Times  made a policy of leaving Canadian affairs in the hands of Canadian journalists. Consequently the image of Canada reflected in the newspaper was what Canadians themselves promoted. Of course these correspondents were selected on the basis of specific criteria, one of which was their ability to defend the interests of the British Empire in North America. There was also the English conception of Canada, their North American Dominion, both as they perceived it and as they wished it to be. In this context, one may question the importance accorded to French Canada and Quebec and the position of the new provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan in relation to the rest of the country.

Canada emerges from the pages of The Times as a political, economic and social reality. In the realm of politics, more attention was focused on the federal government than on the provincial legislatures. As for the economy, the paper concentrated on potential development and investment within the country. Notions of a political economy appeared: politicians were responsible for creating favourable conditions for development, which was in turn ensured by the business sector. Social upheavals such as strikes were seen as an imbalance able to affect both politics and the economy. This point of view determined the paper's treatment of social issues.

Lastly it is important to emphasize that it is the image of English Canada which dominated the pages of The Times. It is time to analyze and understand how English Canadians perceived both themselves and French Canadians if we wish to understand our respective interpretations of history and explain certain prejudices that prevail in the two founding communities.

The period in question (1908 - 1922) is rich for historical research. At this time Canada enjoyed unprecedented economic development and acquired the status of nationhood, independent of the Mother country. However the conjuncture of war had disastrous effects: English and French Canadians were deeply divided on the question of participation in a European conflict. The labour situation worsened after the war as worker disputes escalated. Canada had to rebuild its national unity.

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In England British imperialist ideology was revived owing to the preparations for war. It was essential that the British present a united imperial front in time of war. However the conflict had serious repercussions on the relationships between the Mother country and its Dominions.

This study has certain parameters. The ideological aspect of Canadian history is analyzed through a study of opinion in the the written press. Ideology implies that certain interest groups, by the mediation of the press, describe, interpret, justify or alter reality in order to orient public opinion in a given direction. The more a group's prerogatives are implicated by events which mirror structural or conjunctural change, the more the ideology of the group in question asserts itself. [1]

In this respect, the First World War - its preparation, course of the conflict and the return to peace - constitutes a period favourable to the development of various ideologies. Through ideology it is possible to enter the rich and complex world of cultures, in this case those of Canada. [2]

In this research, study goes beyond the official declarations of the paper itself. Unpublished documents from The Times  archives in London have been consulted in an effort to grasp the true preoccupations of the actors and the institutions with which they are associated. This measure allows the journalist to be seen as an integral part of the various systems.[3]  Several factors exert an influence on the individual - his personal choices, his role and the society of which he is both a member and a representative.

We also wish to understand better the workings of the press. This medium informs and analyzes, offers opinions and entertains. It may influence or be influenced. In summary, the press is both active and passive. It participates in history while reflecting it. [4]  This thesis is intended to be a case study.

As certain images of Canada become apparent, it is possible to distinguish an ideology. Ultimately, one must search for ideology "au point de jonction de l'individuel et du collectif, du temps long et du quotidien, de [19] l'inconscient et de l'intentionnel, du structurel et du conjoncturel, du marginal et du général," as put forward by Jacques Le Goff.[5] This is the task we hope to accomplish in this study.

b) Elements of research

Two repertories are available with the newspaper articles filed in alphabetical order: The Palmer's Index to the Times and The Official Index to the Times. The latter is by far superior. This official Times repertory contains several hundred pages of subjects directly or indirectly related to Canada during the period under scrutiny (1908-1922). Research was carried out with the help of this source.

The impressive number of articles written about Canada proved to be an obstacle. The official index of The Times, under the heading "Canada", from 1908 to 1922, contains 249 pages. With the addition of related subjects such as the Great War, the British Empire, the economy, elections and editorials, to name but a few, there is a grand total of some 500 pages which pertain directly or indirectly to Canada.

It became necessary to develop a method which would respect certain basic principles of random sampling while avoiding the loss of articles such as editorials and analyses of private papers, which are essential to a study of the press.

Sample selections were made at two or three month intervals. If the subject generated material encompassing several columns or pages, the sample was retained. However all editorials were systematically selected. Moreover, on occasions when analyses or commentaries were found dealing with events that seemed to preoccupy the newspaper, certain articles were kept (imperial conferences, elections, the declaration of war, Canadian prime ministers' visits to England, etc.).

If one estimates that each page of the index contains 70 entries, there is a maximum of 35,000 documents concerning Canada. This total is obtained assuming that important articles are filed under several headings. Our final sampling allowed consultation of more than 4,000 articles.

Three distinct phases emerge in the fifteen-year period under study. While political opposition was evident in the pre-war years (1908-1914), limited consensus was obtained for the duration of the conflict (1914-1918). During the course of the war, English Canadians alienated [20] French Canadians. After the war (1919-1922), Canadians had to rebuild national unity and also take their place on the international scene. The British Empire was considerably weakened by the war while American imperialism continued to extend its influence. This context, where the dictates of internal end external politics are intertwined, is fertile ground for the affirmation of ideology.

c) Sources

The Times was founded by John Walter in 1785. During the first half of the nineteenth century, it acquired a prestigious reputation. Governed by the same family since its inception, the publication had difficulty in adapting to the popular press movement which developed in the latter half of the eighteenth century; this problem became more pronounced at the beginning of the twentieth century. The Walter family was obliged to sell the majority of its holdings in 1908 when the paper encountered serious financial difficulties. Northcliffe, the press magnate, bought a substantial quantity of shares and took control of The Times. The paper remained under Northcliffe's direction until his death in 1922. His reputation was well-established: in 1896 Northcliffe had started publication of a newspaper aimed at the working classes and priced at a penny. By 1900, The Daily Mail, as it was called, reached a circulation of 1,000,000 copies per day.

The staff of the newspaper was very important. Upper management positions were occupied by university graduates from such esteemed institutions as Cambridge or Oxford. [6] The Times prided itself on maintaining a team of foreign correspondents, principally in France, Germany, the United States, Canada, Australia and South Africa. [7] The role of these journalists was:

"... the maintenance of the political prestige of The Times on which our national reputation so much depends, and the maintenance and increase of the large circulation which under present conditions is essential to our financial prosperity."[8]

The Canadian team of correspondents was reorganized as Northcliffe consolidated his hold on the newspaper. John Willison, a Toronto journalist, was the pivotal member of the new team. Between 1908 and 1922, the Ottawa [21] desk was occupied successively by Fred Cook, A. Ford and G. O'Leary. [9] In Montreal, Morgan Powell contributed occasionally in 1914, 1915 and also in 1920. A.E. Blow, R.C. Dafoe and W.F. Payne were the principal correspondents from Winnipeg and R.H. Brown, R.C. Rawling and E.H.C. Johnston were the Vancouver-based members of the group. The majority of these men were employed at local newspapers in their respective cities. Their names never appeared on the articles they produced; instead the traditional "From our own correspondent" could be read under the title, and often  the city of origin was mentioned. This last detail enables us to identify the correspondent in question.

During the period under analysis, the newspaper generally contained approximately 20 pages, varying from a minimum of 16 pages to a maximum of 24. It was printed over six columns, exceptionally seven. There were frequent special editions, particularly during the war. We have limited our consultation to regular editions, with the exception of supplements celebrating the anniversary of the Empire, which began to appear May 24, 1909.

The target reader was well-identified. It was of prime importance to influence those who held the reins of power. Consequently the paper sought the readership of politicians, administrators and professionals, those men whose education and dominance were determining factors in the destiny of Great Britain. [10]

Circulation was at its lowest in 1908 when only 38,000 copies were published. As early as 1868, The Times had printed 60,000 papers on a daily basis. Improved services and a lower sale price strengthened its position in 1914 when circulation reached 183,196 copies. The year 1918 saw a marked decrease, this time to 143,295 copies. The sale price went from three pence in 1908 to a penny in March of 1914. Higher production costs and difficulties in newsprint supply necessitated a raise in price to three pence in 1918. This tariff was lowered once again in 1922 before reaching two pence in 1923. [11]

The daily edition did not meet with much success in Canada. For this reason, C.R.E.W. Smith, an Ottawa company, was able to sell only twelve subscriptions from July [22] 1920 to April 1921, for a total of 69 pounds sterling.[12] Sale of the newspaper was difficult in the Dominion; there was strong competition from the United States and Canadian tastes differed from those of the Mother country:

"The whole of North America is bad ground for us. Canada itself is flooded with current U.S.A. publications of attractive make-up, and of an atmosphere to which they are accustomed, whereas English papers take two weeks or more to arrive in many parts, whilst they are distinctly British in tone, style and appearance." [13]

However the newspaper did manage to sell advertising. Banks, governments and railway companies bought commercial space from time to time, either to attract investment or draw immigrant. In spite of this, the publication did not meet its costs. MoreoverThe Times did not seem to strengthen its ties with Canada in 1910, for economic reasons.

In addition, archives are an important source in this research. Not only have we consulted documents left by eminent officials, but we have also attempted to show the importance of the archives of the men of the press. John Willison, Times correspondent in Canada from 1910 to 1927, left an imposing collection of private papers. These documents may be found at the National Archives of Canada (N.A.C.). Moreover, the Times Archives in London are now open to researchers. Several of the documents found in these collections are unpublished and allow valuable insight into the role of The Times during the First World War.

d) The Importance accorded to Canada by The Times

After American independance, many Canadians quickly became the defenders of the British Empire on North American soil. As late as 1830 The Times considered Canada "The most important of our colonial possessions." [14]

After the unrest of 1837 which affected both Upper and Lower Canada (Ontario and Quebec), Durham was sent to analyze the situation. The Times achieved a master-stroke when, on February 8, 1839, it announced to its readers that it was publishing an exclusive report, before even the politicians had seen it:

"We have received a printed copy of the Report on the Affairs of British North America, from the Earl of Durham, her Majesty's [23] High commissioner etc., etc., etc., presented by her Majesty's Command. It has not, we believe, been yet delivered to the members of either House of Parliament."[15]

This coup showed the importance and influence of the newspaper at the time. It was also indicative of the interest shown by the Mother country in its North American colonies.

More generally speaking, The Times was always a staunch defender of the British Empire. It favoured the continuation of the Empire but in no way supported a specific political party concerning the means to achieve this end. In his research, the historian Henry Borzo affirms:

"It was a dispute over means, not ends; how to affect a better empire was the question, rather than should it or should it not be dismantled. (...) In so far as it frequently stressed the need of a better system, be it for emigration or colonial government, it contributed in the long run to many reforms; meanwhile keeping its eye on the larger picture, it too, like responsible government, contributed to the preservation of the Empire. It paved the way for the new concept of Empire... the Commonwealth, not by its unusually early adherence to or defense of responsible government, but rather by its long term broad appreciation of the Empire, frequently expressed as a cultural, linguistic, religious or social project, in contradiction to the older concept of the exertion of political, military and commercial dominance." [16]

What was the image of Canada in England at the beginning of the twentieth century? Canada was still considered the "senior Dominion", the best and most righteous defender of the British Empire. It remains to be seen whether Canada's importance was manifest other than the space accorded to the Dominion and the manner in which it was treated in the articles.

It has been possible to determine the relative importance of Canada in the newspaper by consulting The Official Index to the Times. By comparing the number of articles concerning the North American Dominion, India and Australia, it may be concluded that Canada was at least as significant as the other members of the Empire. (Table I: The London Times, 1908-1922, Importance accorded by the newspaper to Canada, Australia and India).

Before 1908, Canada rarely occupied more than 1% of the publication's [24] pages. Northcliffe's arrival in 1909 and the reorganization of the Canadian correspondents around John Willison allowed better coverage of the Canadian scene, especially in 1910 and 1911. As war approached and particularly during the conflict, Canada's share of attention diminished noticeably to reach its lowest level in 1915 with a mere 0.37%. Europe was the focus of interest in war-time. In 1919, after the hostilities, there was a marked increase with 1.04% of the total space devoted to Canada. This proportion represented 32 pages of text. Between 1919 and 1922 the number of pages in the inventories decreased from 3,063 to 2,013, a decline of 33%. The drop in the number of articles published may be attributed to internal change at the newspaper and difficulties in the pulp and paper sector. Moreover circulation at The Times fell off after the war.

In summary, The Times' coverage of Canadian affairs improved in the years just preceding the war, 1910 and 1911. This was not the case for India and Australia. It may be concluded that Canada was of greater importance in the eyes of the British.

During the war, the paper centred its interest on Europe. Afterwards, The Times immediately restablished its contacts and allotted more space to events in the British Empire. India occupied a greater place than Australia and overtook Canada in 1908-1909 and in 1921-1922.

In the following pages we will outline the evolution of Canada at the beginning of the twentieth century with the help of quantitative statistics. The second chapter contains an analysis of the newspaper's discussion of politics, the economy and society before the conflict. War is the subject of the third chapter, as it became the dominant theme of the period. Lastly, the fourth chapter deals with the post-war era and continues the analysis initiated in the preceding chapters.

Table I

The London Times 1908-1922.
Importance accorded by paper to Canada, Australia and India.

	Nombre total pages	Canada	Australia	India
1908	1232	0,73 %	0,32 %	0,89 %
1909	1396	0,85	0,28	0,93
1910	1499	1,00	0,30	0,80
1911	1831	1,03	0,32	0,60
1912	1845	0,81	0,27	0,56
1913	1897	0,68	0,31	0,57
1914	1905	0,68	0,26	0,41
1915	2123	0,37	0,23	0,37
1916	2259	0,48	0,35	0,39
1917	2430	0,61	0,37	0,57
1918	2791	0,71	0,50	0,57
1919	3063	1,04	0,52	0,78
1920	2885	1,14	0,65	0,79
1921	2324	0,94	0,73	1,03
1922	2013	0,74	0,64	0,84
Source: The Official Index to the Times, 1908-1922

*

Number of pages that the Index devotes to Canada	x 100 = %
Total nomber of pages in the Index

Established according to The Official Index to the Times, 1908-1922.